Heat (Thermodynamics)

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Heat from the Sun is the driving force of most life on Earth. The science of heat and its relation to work is thermodynamics. Heat flow can be created in many ways.

In thermodynamics, heat is the process of energy transfer from one body or system to another due to thermal contact, which in turn is defined as an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to work performed on the body.

A related term is thermal energy, loosely defined as the energy of a body that increases with its temperature. Heat is also loosely referred to as thermal energy, although many definitions require this thermal energy to actually be in the process of movement between one body and another to be technically called heat (otherwise, many sources prefer to continue to refer to the static quantity as "thermal energy"). Heat is a means of energy transfer, rather than a form of energy.

Energy transfer by heat can occur between objects by radiation, conduction and convection. Temperature is used as a measure of the internal energy or enthalpy, that is the level of elementary motion giving rise to heat transfer. Energy can only be transferred by heat between objects - or areas within an object - with different temperatures (as given by the zeroth law of thermodynamics). This transfer happens spontaneously only in the direction of the colder body (as per the second law of thermodynamics). The transfer of energy by heat from one object to another object with an equal or higher temperature can happen only with the aid of a heat pump via mechanical work.

Contents

Overview

The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of an isolated system is conserved. Therefore, to change the energy of a system, energy must be transferred to or from the system. Heat and work are the only two mechanisms by which energy can be transferred to or from a control mass. Work performed on a body is, by definition an energy transfer to the body that is due to a change of the external parameters of the body (such as the volume, magnetization, center of mass position in a gravitational field etc.). Heat is the energy transferred to the body in any other way. This definition of heat applies generally: it does not appeal to any notion of thermal equilibrium.

In case of bodies close to thermal equilibrium where notions such as the temperature can be defined, heat transfer can be related to temperature difference between bodies. It is an irreversible process that leads to the bodies coming closer to mutual thermal equilibrium.

The unit for the amount of energy transferred by heat in the International System of Units SI is the joule (J), though the British Thermal Unit and the calorie are still used in the United States. The unit for the rate of heat transfer is the watt (W = J/s). Heat Q can flow across the boundary of the system and thus change its internal energy U.

Heat Q can flow across the boundary of the system and thus change its internal energy U.

Heat transfer is a path function (process quantity), as opposed to a point function (state quantity). Heat flows between systems that are not in thermal equilibrium with each other; it spontaneously flows from the areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature. When two bodies of different temperature come into thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until their temperatures are equalized; that is, until they reach thermal equilibrium. The adjective hot is used as a relative term to compare the object’s temperature to that of the surroundings (or that of the person using the term). The term heat is used to describe the flow of energy. In the absence of work interactions, the heat that is transferred to an object ends up getting stored in the object in the form of internal energy. A red-hot iron rod from which heat transfer to the surrounding environment will be primarily through radiation.

A red-hot iron rod from which heat transfer to the surrounding environment will be primarily through radiation.

Specific heat is defined as the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or from one unit of mass or mole of a substance to change its temperature by one degree. Specific heat is a property, which means that it depends on the substance under consideration and its state as specified by its properties. Fuels, when burned, are converted to molecules with a lower internal energy. The change in energy is heat. Upon changing from one phase to another, a pure substance releases or absorbs heat without its temperature changing. The amount of heat transfer during a phase change is known as latent heat and depends primarily on the substance and its state.

Notation

The total amount of energy transferred through heat transfer is conventionally abbreviated as Q. The conventional sign convention is that when a body releases heat into its surroundings, Q < 0 (-); when a body absorbs heat from its surroundings, Q > 0 (+). Heat transfer rate, or heat flow per unit time, is denoted by:

\dot{Q} = {dQ\over dt} \,\!.

It is measured in watts. Heat flux is defined as rate of heat transfer per unit cross-sectional area, and is denoted q, resulting in units of watts per square metre, though slightly different notation conventions can be used.

Heat transfer mechanisms

Heat tends to move from a high-temperature region to a low-temperature region. This heat transfer may occur by the mechanisms of conduction and radiation. In engineering, the term convective heat transfer is used to describe the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow and is regarded as a third mechanism of heat transfer.

Conduction

Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer in a solid. On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring atoms. In insulators the heat flux is carried almost entirely by phonon vibrations. Fire test used to test the heat transfer through firestops and penetrants used in construction listing and approval use and compliance.

Fire test used to test the heat transfer through firestops and penetrants used in construction listing and approval use and compliance.

The "electron fluid" of a conductive metallic solid conducts nearly all of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less than 1% of the energy. Electrons also conduct electric current through conductive solids, and the thermal and electrical conductivities of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as copper, usually also conducts heat well. The Peltier-Seebeck effect exhibits the propensity of electrons to conduct heat through an electrically conductive solid. Thermoelectricity is caused by the relationship between electrons, heat fluxes and electrical currents.

Convection

Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. This is a term used to characterise the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. In convection, enthalpy transfer occurs by the movement of hot or cold portions of the fluid together with heat transfer by conduction. Commonly an increase in temperature produces a reduction in density. Therefore, when water is heated on a stove, hot water from the bottom of the pan rises, displacing the colder denser liquid which falls. Mixing and conduction result eventually in a nearly homogeneous density and even temperature. Two types of convection are commonly distinguished, free convection, in which gravity and buoyancy forces drive the fluid movement, and forced convection, where a fan, stirrer, or other means is used to move the fluid. Buoyant convection is due to the effects of gravity, and therefore does not occur in microgravity environments.

Radiation

Radiation is the only form of heat transfer that can occur in the absence of any form of medium (i.e., through a vacuum). Thermal radiation is a direct result of the movements of atoms and molecules in a material. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles (protons and electrons), their movements result in the emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from the surface. At the same time, the surface is constantly bombarded by radiation from the surroundings, resulting in the transfer of energy to the surface. Since the amount of emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature, a net transfer of energy from higher temperatures to lower temperatures results.

The power that a black body emits at various frequencies is described by Planck's law. For any given temperature, there is a frequency fmax at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency of light is inversely proportional to its wavelength in vacuum, mean that the peak frequency fmax is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. The photosphere of the Sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the visible portion of the spectrum. The Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and the light reaching the Earth's surface is absorbed or reflected. The Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at fmax. At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from the Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though some radiation escapes into space, it is absorbed and subsequently re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary greenhouse effect.

The common household lightbulb has a spectrum overlapping the blackbody spectra of the sun and the earth. A portion of the photons emitted by a tungsten light bulb filament at 3000K are in the visible spectrum. However, most of the energy is associated with photons of longer wavelengths; these will not help a person see, but will still transfer heat to the environment, as can be deduced empirically by observing a household incandescent lightbulb. Whenever EM radiation is emitted and then absorbed, heat is transferred. This principle is used in microwave ovens, laser cutting, and RF hair removal.

Unlike other heat transfer mechanisms, thermal radiation can be concentrated in a tiny spot by using reflecting mirrors. Concentrating solar power takes advantage of this fact. In many such systems, mirrors are employed to concentrate sunlight into a smaller area. In lieu of mirrors, Fresnel lenses can also be used to concentrate heat flux. Either method can be used to quickly vaporize water into steam using sunlight. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower, and during the day it can heat water to 285°C (558.15°K) or 545°F, which exceeds vacuum temperatures experienced by spacecraft in orbit around the Earth.

References

  • Faghri, A., Zhang, Y., and Howell, J. R., 2010, Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer, Global Digital Press, Columbia, MO.
  • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat - wikipedia.com

External Links


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